Mahamudra

Maitreya Institute, San Francisco, May 1989

It is good to speak with you after some time. After several months, I was requested by many individuals, and by Maitreya Institute, to be here and share the teachings of Buddha. My staff and monks worked hard and were able to arrange this time for us. I’m very happy about it. Since our time is valuable, I’d like to try to present the precious teachings of Lord Buddha in the most simple and comprehensive way possible within my limited capabilities.

As you know, the teaching of Lord Buddha is very vast, deep and profound. The primary reason for this is that Buddha taught after his enlightenment. Therefore, his teaching is the manifestation of an enlightened person, a Buddha.

A second reason Buddha’s teaching is so vast is that he taught for approximately 45 years after his enlightenment. In that time, many individuals came forward to receive his guidance, and he taught each of them according to their level of understanding. That is why there is a tremendous amount of material.

A third reason why Buddha’s teaching is very vast is that, throughout the past 2,500 years of Buddhist history, the great Buddhist masters continued the unbroken profound lineage. This continuation involved academic development, practice and practical application. Therefore the material on Buddhism is voluminous, and is presented with the greatest detail and clarity.

My own knowledge and wisdom is very limited, but whatever is there is totally due to the Buddha, who taught 25 centuries ago, and to the lineage that continued it all the way through to the great masters who taught me. Whatever I am sharing with you was given to me by them, to be shared. There is no other reason. So, in these next eight talks [Tigers Fall Asleep series], I’ll do my best to share the teachings of Buddha as I received them.

It is very difficult to have any teaching on dharma without exploring the entire subject roughly, but these particular eight talks each concentrate on a particular subject. Today’s subject is Mahamudra.

What does Mahamudra really mean? This word is not in your language; it is not even in my language. Mahamudra is a Sanskrit word. As many of you know, Sanskrit is the language in which Buddha taught and instructed his disciples. Maha means great, or grand, and mudra means gesture, or symbol. So, Mahamudra means great gesture or great symbol. Understanding the meaning of this word is fundamental to having a clear understanding of what it represents.

We can understand Mahamudra as every relative manifestation is a gesture of the unchanging and unlimited ultimate. This simply means that our wisdom and our defilements are the manifestation of what we are. Ultimately we are Buddha. We are perfectly totally Buddha. Our potential is total perfection, total pureness. When the manifestation is positive, that pureness manifests through our activities. When it is negative, this pureness is obscured and our obscurations get in the way.

I’m quite certain I’ve said this many times in the past, but I’ll say it one more time (actually, I’ll say it many more times, but I’ll say it one more time right now)--if you ask me directly: “Is the ultimate positive or negative?” I would say positive. If you ask this question from a slightly different angle: “Is the ultimate perfection or imperfection?” certainly it is perfection. If you ask me: “Is the ultimate evil or is it profound and kind?” definitely I would say it is profound and kind. You can ask millions of questions regarding the nature of the ultimate and, in Buddhism, you’ll never find any negative quality or limitation. There is no such thing. So, the positive and negative are not at war ultimately. For me that is very good news.

In this room, some of us are men and some of us are women, some of us are happy, some of us are not happy. This is relative manifestation. None of it is ultimate. But it is the relative manifestation of the ultimate essence. We’ll go into more detail later regarding this manifestation principle.

Now that we know the meaning of the title Mahamudra, we should know how the teaching came about. If we look into the subject deeply, there is no other source but the ultimate essence. But if we look at it from a limited or dualistic point of view, we have to go into the history, and that history goes back to Buddha.

If you ask, “Is every teaching of Buddha considered Mahamudra?” the answer is certainly, if that teaching comes from the deepest and highest level of the understanding of Buddhism. But if we are looking for an answer from the more practical, fundamental way of understanding Buddhism, then we have to say no.

Buddha taught Mahamudra as a series of teachings--called gyu in Tibetan and tantra in Sanskrit. Mahamudra is the essence of the tantric aspect of Buddha’s teachings. For those of you who are new to this subject, I’d like to give you some idea of what tantra is.

Buddha never wrote down any of his teachings. And he didn’t say, “Now I’m teaching this, and now I’m teaching that,” in order to give out a university degree. Buddha taught according to the level of understanding of the people who came to listen. His teachings were given primarily at the request of people. Someone would feel confusion about a certain subject, would go ask Buddha about it, and Buddha would answer. Most of the teachings were given in that manner. Later, Buddha’s disciples compiled his teachings in four categories: vinaya, abhidharma, sutra, and tantra.

If we look at Mahamudra fundamentally, it is quite a low level of looking at things. But that is the most common way to look at things. Therefore, this becomes the essence of the tantric teachings of the Buddha.

Source of Mahamudra

There are three sources of Mahamudra teaching:

•      Gyu, the words of the Buddha, the tantra.

•      Chö jagyu. Jagyu means the Sanskrit text. These weren’t the precise words of the Buddha, but an elaboration of the teachings of the Buddha by his disciples and, later, the learned and enlightened masters. Sometimes they were not only an elaboration, but the compilation of many texts into one. That is called jagyu, the texts that are translated from Sanskrit to Tibetan. All the jagyus are translated from Sanskrit to Tibetan.

•      The last one is called mnog, which means oral instruction. The mnogs are usually in the minds of the teachers, who, then, give mnog instructions to their disciples. Some of the mnogs are also written down.

Since I’ve been involved with Tibetan Buddhism from the beginning, all of the mnogs that I can share are Tibetan. They were not translated from Sanskrit. If we again want to be more superficial, we can say, gyu is the words of the Buddha, jagyu are the texts that were translated from Sanskrit to Tibetan, and mnog are the Tibetan texts. If we understand that it is not one-hundred percent true, we can say that, because most mnogs were taught to Tibetan masters by the great Indian masters, but because they were never written down, there was nothing to translate. These Tibetan masters continued to teach it to their disciples, so it is only in Tibetan. We should have no problem with that since we know that Tibetan Buddhism has a history of one-thousand years and more.

Now, I want explain gyu and jagyu very briefly, because it involves introducing you to the names and authors of a number of texts. This would be quite taxing if you weren’t interested in them. Gyu, remember, are the words of the Buddha which were translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan. The Mahamudra teaching is the essence of such tantras as Guhyasamaja, Chakrasamvara, Hevajra, Mahamaya, and Kalachakra. One particular tantra, entitled “_______________ gyu” in Tibetan (in English it might be entitled “free from thought” tantra), is considered to be one of the highest tantras. These are some of the titles associated with Mahamudra.

Now about the jagyu, the Sanskrit texts—not the direct words of Buddha, but the commentaries of the great masters translated into Tibetan. There are many jagyu but I’ll just briefly name a few of them. One text was written by several great masters, such as Indrabhuti, Dombe Heruka, and Naljor Nalpalmo. It contains the teachings of both male and female enlightened masters. This is seven groups of texts together, entitled trupa de dün. This means “seven great accomplishment texts.” These are all aspects of teachings on Mahamudra.

One of them is Mahamudra as “born together perfect wisdom.” That simply means it is always here. It is nowhere else. The perfect quality is here within us. In ordinary Buddhist terms, we might call it buddha nature. In Mahamudra terms, it is usually called “perfect born together wisdom,” or ________________yeshe, ” it was born with you.” So these particular seven texts are one source of Mahamudra.

Another six texts are called the snyin-po-go thrug, or six essences, like the heart. Snyin means heart, but snyin-po means essence—snyin-po of ginseng, or snyin-po of flute. When we say snyin without the po, it simply means the heart, which is the most important part of the body.

These six texts, which contain both instructions and tohas, were written by great masters such as Nagarjuna and Aryadeva. Tohas are similar to poetry. They are a very high level of expression in verse form, very much like the haiku of the Japanese. But unlike haiku, most tohas cover a subject from beginning to end. It is not just a couple of lines of poetry on one subject and a few more on another unrelated subject. It involves a continuation.

Other texts involve the life stories of the great masters. One particular collection contains the life stories of the eighty-four Mahasiddhas, or enlightened masters. Another is called “______________.”[1] This contains the life stories of forty enlightened men and women masters. Another contains the life stories of thirty enlightened female masters. These are examples of Mahamudra texts that are not just teachings, but life stories.

With regard to the mnog, everything I say here this evening is part of the mnog, because it is from the words of my teachers, and I’m talking about it from my personal experience, using my own words. I think that is the only way we can say anything—otherwise it wouldn’t make any sense.

Framework of Mahamudra

In order to make this subject manageable, we need a framework; otherwise we might get lost. A framework that is very common in the teachings of Mahamudra is ground Mahamudra, path Mahamudra, and fruition (or result) Mahamudra. We can look at each of these three principles from several points of view.

Ground Mahamudra

First, what is it that enables us to believe that we can do things to improve ourselves? What makes us think that when we say “I want to liberate all sentient beings?” it is really possible? Perhaps we’re totally out of our minds. When we say, “May I attain enlightenment,” how do we know there is such a thing as enlighten­ment? And can we really achieve it? So, first we have to answer these kinds of questions. Otherwise, it is very nice that we can be together, and study interesting things, but then, what next? So, the ground is the potential, the possibility, where we can go.

It says, “Ultimately we have no limitation; ultimately we have no weakness; ultimately we have no negativity.” That is what makes us think that all sentient beings can attain enlightenment, because we have no negativity. Not only do we have no ultimate negativity, but all sentient beings have no negativity ultimately. They have no defilement ultimately. But we shouldn’t say “They have no negativity and I have no negativity,” “I am perfect and they are perfect.” That is wrong unless we add “ultimately.” Then it starts to make sense. Otherwise we might become quite dreadful, actually—just between you and me!

Path Mahamudra

Let us say that we know that our ultimate potential is limitless, but we find that it is not working. When something unpleasant takes place, we become negative; we feel sad, angry, resentful. When something pleasant happens, we become proud, and that makes us greedy. It is rare that we don’t manifest those attitudes. We feel stupid. We don’t know what to do. We don’t know how to take advantage of when everything is going quite well and nothing is affecting us in the wrong way. We don’t know how to handle it. We still suffer from it.

This should be answered by saying that these defilements, these obscurations, these limitations that I’m experiencing right now, always change; therefore I know this isn’t ultimate. But what is it? We use the principle of synonyms and antonyms. If it is not ultimate, it has to be relative. All defilements, all negativities are relative. But we shouldn’t get too excited, because when we say relative, it doesn’t mean one hour relative, or even one lifetime relative. It means quite a long time.

We have to overcome those relative obstacles, and the path is the answer. We have a living path. It is not just history. It is not just in books. It is there as an experience, as a practice, as an instruction. And certainly we should be grateful for it. But it doesn’t mean this is the only path. If we think this is the only path, we don’t understand our path deeply enough. The path is doing anything perfectly, doing anything right.

As a Mahamudra practitioner who has been trying to practice—sometimes failing, sometimes with success, but never giving up—my path is the Mahamudra instruction: how to deal with my anger, how to deal with my desire, how to deal with my jealousy, how to deal with my envy, how to deal with my pride, how to deal with any negative situation, how to meditate, how to instill in others some sense of their own essence. That is the path. And, ultimately, what am I? I know who I am when I see my photo. I do recognize myself. I have no problem with that. But then, behind this Tibetan face, what am I? Behind this historical name, what am I? How do I recognize that aspect of myself and then go beyond? That is also the path.

Fruition Mahamudra

The fruition is the result, the destination, the purpose of the path. As such, it can be quite easy for us to see. When we recognize what we are, that is the beginning of the fruition. But that is not the real fruition. Just to recognize ourselves isn’t good enough. The realization of that recognition is enlightenment, the real fruition. That is one way to look at it.

Ground, Path, Fruition in Greater Detail

If we go into this ground, path and fruition in greater detail, we have to slightly alter our way of looking at it. Here I would like to share four sentences of text written by one of the great masters. He said: “There is nothing to take away, and there is nothing to add. When we look at the profound meaning profoundly, we see the profound meaning profoundly. Then we are liberated.”

Just a moment ago I explained the ground in here, but now let’s explain it out there. Out there all these phenomena are happening. They are happening, indeed. Regarding this, I would like to share with you an experience I had as a young boy. At that time I was studying the text called prajna-paramita-abhisamaya-alankara, taught by Lord Maitreya to the great master Asanga. In that text, he talked about emptiness. As I studied this text, I became really convinced that everything is emptiness. But my conviction was still incomplete. So I used to bang my hand on the table, and it was still there. It hurt my fingers when I hit really hard, and it was still there. So the Mahamudra teaching helped me not to hit my finger on the table. It says, “Everything is out there indeed, but it is out there in interdependent interrelation to us, to our mind and our body.” There is no solid, permanent essence in this mind, or this thought, or this emotion. I might like spaghetti so much today that I can eat three plates, but I might not be able to finish one plate of spaghetti tomorrow. Today somebody might say something that might hurt or embarrass me, but tomorrow maybe one-hundred people could say the same thing and it might not affect me at all.

Emotions, attitudes and thoughts aren’t permanent. They come and go. Therefore, the mind, the dualistic aspect through which all of these things manifest, with which all of these things function, is without permanent essence. But beyond and behind these impermanent thoughts, emotions and attitudes is the essence. There is the essence of all of those things out there as well as in here. That is the limitless, changeless, ever-present potential of enlightenment, the buddha nature. That is how to look at this ground Mahamudra from another angle, although it comes to the same conclusion, certainly.

The path is limitless. According to our relative obscurations, shortcomings, habits—both serious and not so serious—the path is there. Path is a remedy, a way through which we can deal with ourselves, with our situations, and with other human beings. The interrelation is the same as before—I like him or I don’t like him; we get along or we don’t get along; he is my friend or he is my enemy; I don’t know him or I know him. All of these things are just interdependent co-existing manifestations of everyone else.

According to what is there to work out, and work with, the path is there; therefore, it is impossible to talk about the entire path. Even to just talk about one person’s path is impossible. But as the available method of the teaching of the Buddha, the path is something we can relate to. The direct words of the Buddha in our language take up over one-hundred huge volumes. That is the source of the method, roughly speaking. Of course, the direct translation by his disciples translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan is over two-hundred volumes, and then thousands of volumes of texts by other great masters of both India and Tibet, and then Japanese and Chinese and all the others. So, there are many thousands of texts.

Applying the Teachings of Buddha

All the existing teachings of the Buddha follow a systematic method. First we have to have a clear understanding of Buddha and his teachings. Then we have to apply the teachings of Buddha. There are many ways to go about that, such as listening, questioning, contemplating, praying, meditating, doing things for other people, and doing things for the dharma.

Meditation Method

When it comes to meditation method, we first have to develop the ability to meditate effectively. We all have the potential, but the ability has to be developed. For that, our mind must be clear. Ordinarily speaking, when our mind is clear, we manage our lives much better than when we’re in a state of confusion. To practice dharma, we definitely need a clear mind.

We can clear our mind by practicing a particular meditation method to calm the emotions through settling down our physical, oral and mental activity. First we learn how to sit properly and bring our mind into a calm, quiet and gentle concentration capability. Many people think we’re not supposed to think when we meditate. That is absolutely wrong. It is impossible not to think. At the very least, we have to think we are meditating, and that we should meditate. If we don’t have that thought, then how can we meditate? So, thinking is involved. But we want to cultivate the ability to think gently and quietly about something, and think it through from beginning to end. In Tibetan, this meditation method is called shinay. It is considered to be the most simple and most effective method. It involves the breath, and concentration on particular visualizations, etc. There are hundreds of methods of shinay.

Once we have developed our practice of shinay, the next step is lha tong. When our mind is calm and quiet, there has to be clarity; otherwise it is just like sleeping. It is not enough. Of course, if we’re able to just calm down, that’s the best way to rest. But then, so what? We practice lha tong to make this restfulness, this quietness, this calmness, more than just quiet and calm. This quiet mind, the sharpness and the clearness, has to be recognized. So, once we develop the calmness, we develop the clarity of that calmness, or lha tong. There are a number of ways to practice lha tong.

As we develop shinay and lha tong, naturally we’re supposed to develop compassion and devotion. I don’t think the words compassion and devotion really cover the full meaning, but they give us an idea.

Devotion and Compassion

Devotion and compassion are very important. First, we have to know that ultimately we are perfect. But we also have to know that relatively we are not. To see and understand the boundary between how much our perfect quality and essence is already developed and how much of it is yet to be developed is quite important. If we do it through just an intellectual analysis, we’ll get confused. After all, none of us wants to underestimate ourselves if we have a choice. We always want to think we’re better than we are.

All of this is very effectively and appropriately handled through devotion and compassion. We can have pure compassion for all the sentient beings who are less happy than us, who have less wisdom than us, who are suffering more than us. We develop that compassion, we accept that compassion. And we have devotion to those who know more than us, who are more pure than us, who are more enlightened than us, who are kinder than us. Compassion and devotion allow us to see ourselves clearly, in a most appropriate way.

Through the development of pure compassion and pure devotion, our practice progresses. How should we go about it? If we follow the traditional teaching of Buddha, we have no problem. But if we try to make it a little bit untraditional, we have some problem, because we might make mistakes. It’s like cooking. If you follow the recipe, it’s likely to come out okay. But if you experiment too much, you’d better have a first-aid kit right next to you because you don’t know what will happen. So, if we follow the teachings appropriately, traditionally, there is less possibility of wasting time. But if we have pure motivation, even if we make mistakes, that is also the practice. We learn from our mistakes. Buddha learned from his mistakes and he became Buddha. So, through the practice of shinay, calmness, and lha tong, clearness, we’re able to develop this compassion and devotion deeply, profoundly and genuinely. And through this practice method, we can eventually apply deeper levels of instruction, such as practicing a particular mandala, practicing a particular mantra, practicing a particular exercise, practicing all aspects of profound dharma. Under the guidance of a profound and capable teacher, a disciple who is intelligent and diligent can progress on the path smoothly. A profound teacher means a teacher who practiced that teaching in the past and who has the ability to teach it to others. That is the definition of a teacher.

In this progress on the path, two things happen constantly. Actually, millions of things are happening constantly, but each happens in two steps all the time. This is rnyam and tok-pa. Rnyam is a sense of accomplishment. But we cannot rely on rnyams. Rnyam is related with anxiety, and more precisely with greed, desire and ego. We want something to happen. Because of that, something is happening. That is rnyam, or a kind of rnyams.

Our great masters gave very clear descriptions of rnyam. For example, one text says: “Rnyam is like a cloud, like a mist. It comes and it goes. Don’t rely on it.” The tok-pa is the actual true step. Rnyam and tok-pa can go on and on, until a certain level of realization, a certain level of tok-pa, and until that level, our rnyam and tok-pa can both go back. It is very clearly described in both the sutras and tantras that until we reach a certain level of realization, we can lose any realization we attain. But after a particular stage of realization, we cannot lose it. The closest way to describe it is one step before the first-level bodhisattva realization. At that particular stage, there can be no more falling back into samsara. But until then, no matter how learned we become, no matter how enlightened we are, we can fall back into samsara, even to the lowest of the samsara. That is possible.

So we apply ourselves to deal with rnyam and tok-pa properly. We don’t get attached the rnyam and we don’t get proud of the tok-pa. Then we will attain the final recognition of our buddha nature—not just a philosophical, theoretical recognition, not just an intellectual recognition, not just a rnyam recognition. For example, “When I went on the top of the mountain, I felt I was enlightened, but when I came back to my apartment, I was just the same person, but with something extra—some sense of loss.” So, that level of the recognition of buddha nature is entitled first-level bodhisattva. In Mahayana, in the practice of sutra, first-level bodhisattva is equivalent to the recognition of buddha nature—not as in rnyam, not as an experience, but as a final realization.

This can go on and on until we reach the final stage of realization, or enlightenment. That is the path. Enlightenment is the fruition. Enlightenment isn’t just recognizing our buddha nature, it is total liberation from all possible dualistic defilements, and from even the most subtle obscurations and limitations. But I’ll leave our discussion of enlightenment for our last discussion.

Thank you for listening. I feel we have communicated quite well. I’m grateful for all of my teachers and the lineage. And now, if you have any questions, I’d like to try to answer them.

Rinpoche, there seems to be a strong relationship between discipline and devotion. Can you say more about that?

First let me say that it is such a relief that we don’t have to use translators. I had wonderful translators in my Southeast Asian tour, but it takes twice as long and makes everything twice as complicated. So, although my English is bad, I feel that I shouldn’t be worried about it. I should look at the positive side of it.

Now, concerning devotion, devotion in itself is not enough. If we don’t have discipline as well, it is unlikely we can get anything done. Even if something pleasant happens, it is just an accident. In Buddhism, as a principle, there are no accidents—everything has a cause and condition. But if there is no discipline, it is more like an accident. There is no value. Something just happens—it’s pleasant and that’s it. If we have discipline, there is constant progress. Discipline itself is progress, and everything goes better. It doesn’t go worse.

And the appreciation of discipline is very important. Following a discipline means that we acknowledge and accept our weakness. If we don’t like to be disciplined, it means, one way or another, we don’t accept our relative imperfection. It also means we don’t believe in our potential, we don’t believe in our future, we don’t believe in possibilities. On the other hand, when we follow a discipline, it means we accept that we make mistakes, we accept that we can improve, and we want to improve. Taking on a discipline means we believe, we hope and we progress. We accept our potential.

We will make mistakes, that is for sure. I make mistakes, you make mistakes, everyone makes mistakes. Everybody in the world makes mistakes. But many learn and develop from their mistakes, while others are destroyed by theirs (relatively, of course). So, discipline is very important, and not only for developing devotion.

In response to your question, we should consider that doing things properly is the definition of discipline, and following those necessary steps is a key for the accomplishment—making devotion more pure, making compassion more pure. Compassion and devotion are always related. If we have real devotion, we naturally have compassion. We cannot have real devotion without compassion If we have tremendous so-called devotion without compassion, something is wrong. It means we don’t really have devotion. If we have true compassion, we naturally have devotion. It is impossible to have tremendous compassion but no devotion. They’re interrelated.

Rinpoche, could you talk about where belief fits in to realization, and how it relates to Mahamudra?

Of course I cannot really grasp this term “belief” because my usage of English, in itself, is very much based upon the belief. I heard those words and I have a feeling for each of those words and when I think about a subject, particular words come up. Then I developed trust in it and it just comes out, like a recording.

We have several terms for this subject. We say tepa and yidchi. These are the most basic two words. Yidchi means no doubt, doubtless. Yid means mind. Chi is like knowing something without having to think about it. For example, if something is falling towards us from the twentieth floor, we don’t have to wonder if it will hurt us or not. Or if we’re falling from a staircase that is very steep and very high, we have yidchi that we’ll get hurt for sure. We have yidchi that our friend won’t cheat us. We have yidchi that our boss will be fair to us. And we have yidchi that our doctor will give us medicine, not poison.

Tepa is totally spiritual. It is not related with anything mundane. There are three types of tepa—tang wa, dödpa, yidchepa. When we see a compassionate person, we can feel it, we can see the whole situation in a different way. We can feel the pureness. So we call that tang wi tepa, tang wi devotion.

Then dödpa is when we see something perfect, like the activity of a bodhisattva who does nothing but help sentient beings, we also want to be that way. When we learn about Buddha, when we know what Buddha is, we want to be Buddha.

The last one, yidchi, goes together with yidchipa tepa, because we know this teacher won’t cheat us. We know this teaching will definitely benefit us. We know enlightenment can be achieved. No doubt. So, now yidchi is only used for worldly things. Yidchipi tepa becomes the way to describe a particular aspect of tepa. So tepa and yidchi are two things.

Rinpoche, can you talk a little about self-pity?

I think in our language this is jilug. Jilug is a funny word. It really doesn’t make any sense when we don’t add something to it. Ji is like the calf of the leg, the muscle that allows us to walk and climb. That is jipa. Lug is like its finished. It has grown big, or come out, or there is nothing there. It means we cannot climb. When this is explained in our language, another term is added. Jilug-danyeyepa-lelo. It is three words. Da means you, danye means yourself and nyepa is like if you’re not a nice person, if you’re an arrogant person, when you see somebody weak, you nyepa, or you nye that person. You don’t look at him, don’t listen to him. You even push that person away. Nye means no respect. It is a little like pity, but I think pity is a bit too kind. When we say self-pity in our language, it is very much like that—nyepa. We put ourselves down. Lelo means lazy. Self-pity is actually described as a kind of lelo, a laziness. It is definitely not good for progress and for overcoming something.

How do we overcome it? I’m sure there are hundreds and thousands of ways to overcome it. The way I deal with it personally is that if we know we’re ultimately perfect, if we know we’re ultimately Buddha, we cannot really put ourselves down. If we just see enough of our weakness, and we’re able to accept it, and at the same time we know our ultimate potential, this is quite good.

So, I think we should excuse ourselves now. All of your questions are wonderful, and I’m very happy that I could say a few words to answer them.

I would now like to request the venerable lamas and nuns to help us dedicate this merit.

[Dedication]

[Transcribed and edited by Stephanie Harolde]

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